This policy topic covers state statutes and regulations governing the cultivation, sale, possession, or use of cannabis for other than medical (hereafter referred to as “recreational”) purposes in states that have legalized cannabis.

In this context, “legalized" means that no civil or criminal penalties are imposed for the recreational use of cannabis by an adult. “Legalized” should not be confused with “decriminalized,” which means that no criminal penalties are imposed for certain activities, although some activities may result in civil penalties. Some States have decriminalized the recreational use of cannabis but have not fully legalized such use.

For purposes of this policy topic, “cannabis” refers to a genus of flowering plant of the Cannabaceae or hemp family, including Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, which together are also commonly known as marijuana. This policy topic covers legal provisions that pertain to the dried tops, leaves, stems, and seeds of the plant, as well as products derived from them, such as concentrates, oils, and edibles.

Cannabis contains chemical compounds called cannabinoids. One important cannabinoid is delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC, which has a psychoactive effect and is the chemical commonly associated with recreational use. Another cannabinoid is cannabidiol, or CBD, which has a sedative and mildly analgesic effect and is the chemical often associated with medicinal use.

Note that APIS does not include information on the legal use of cannabis for medicinal purposes. For policy data regarding medical cannabis, researchers may wish to consult the National Institute on Drug Abuse’s “Prescription Drug Abuse Policy System,” available at: https://pdaps.org/ or the National Conference of State Legislatures’ “State Medical Marijuana Laws” page, available at: https://www.ncsl.org/health/state-medical-cannabis-laws.

Explanatory Notes and Limitations Specifically Applicable to Recreational Use of Cannabis: Volume 2

1. The Recreational Use Legalized column displays a check mark for jurisdictions that have legalized the purchase, possession, or consumption of cannabis for recreational use by an adult resident. For purposes of this topic:

• "Legalized" means no civil or criminal penalties are imposed for at least one of following activities with respect to the recreational use of cannabis by an adult resident: purchase, possession, or consumption
• "Recreational" means for other than medical purposes
• "Adult" means a person 21 years of age or older

This topic does not address prohibitions or penalties that may exist in the jurisdictions that have not legalized recreational cannabis use as defined here.

Note that although a jurisdiction may have legalized recreational cannabis use as defined here, certain limitations may nevertheless be imposed, for example limits on the amount that a person may purchase or possess, or restrictions concerning the locations in which cannabis may be consumed. This topic does not currently address these limitations.

2. Some Recreational Use of Cannabis laws have different effective dates for various provisions. For example, the date establishing a licensing system for the cultivation, testing, manufacturing, processing, distribution, transportation, and retail sale of recreational cannabis may be a year or more earlier than the date when recreational cannabis may lawfully be sold to the public. If significant terms of a State's policy become effective on one date, even though full implementation or enforcement is not effective until a later date, the earlier date is displayed in the comparison tables. In such cases, a Row Note is included to indicate the date when the program is to be fully implemented and enforceable.

3. The APIS treatment of the Vertical Integration Prohibited variable does not include certain ancillary license types such as testing or processing or transporter licenses, in which cannabis is not purchased, stored, and later re-sold by the licensee as part of its business operations. Rather, this analysis addresses the primary license types involved in the cultivation, production, wholesale distribution, and retail sale of recreational cannabis in a given jurisdiction. For jurisdictions that may have legalized the recreational use of cannabis but which have no authorized distribution system, such as the District of Columbia, the table will appear blank for this variable. (This does not apply to jurisdictions currently in the process of establishing a system of authorized distribution.)

4. The Use of Pesticides variable addresses requirements that apply to the cultivation and production of recreational cannabis specifically. This variable does not address requirements that apply to the cultivation or production of food, agricultural, or consumer products in a State generally, or that apply only to cannabis cultivated or produced for medical use in a jurisdiction. In the jurisdictions that have legalized the recreational use of cannabis, the law typically defines “pesticides” to include any substance intended to prevent or control any form of plant or animal life normally considered a pest, including substances commonly referred to as herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc. APIS has adopted this definition for purposes of this variable.

5. For purposes of the Health & Safety Warning Requirements variable, “Serving Size” is coded when there is a requirement that the label or packaging of a cannabis product state or identify the number of servings and/or the serving size of the product.

6. The Packaging Requirements variable addresses requirements applicable to the physical packaging of recreational cannabis specifically. This variable does not address requirements that apply to the packaging of food, agricultural, or consumer products in a State generally, or that apply only to cannabis cultivated or produced for medical use in a jurisdiction. “Serving Size” is coded when there is a requirement that cannabis product packaging apportion or allow for the apportionment of the product into one or more particular servings, for example by:

• packaging the product into designated servings;
• physically scoring, marking or separating the product into identifiable servings; or
• providing a means for the consumer to apportion the product into designated servings.

7. In reviewing the Public Consumption column, users should note that “local option” may apply to cannabis consumption practices in certain jurisdictions. In other words, even in jurisdictions which APIS has coded as prohibiting public consumption of recreational cannabis under State law, it is possible that local ordinances may allow consumption outside a private residence in certain settings and in specific sub-state jurisdictions, for example in a private club or social club setting, or pursuant to a local consumption area license. Conversely, it is possible that local ordinances may prohibit consumption establishments otherwise allowed under state law. (For more information on this subject, see the Local Authority variable in Recreational Use of Cannabis: Volume 1.) APIS does not document policies established by local governments. In addition, the APIS treatment of Public Consumption does not address the impact of clean indoor air act or smoke-free air act laws as they may relate to the consumption of cannabis.

8. For purposes of the Home Delivery variable, if a jurisdiction specifically allows deliveries of recreational cannabis products to consumers in residences, but specifically prohibits them to hotel rooms, conference centers, or other non-residential locations, or vice versa, the jurisdiction is coded as "Allowed With Restrictions" and the specific restrictions are detailed in a Row Note. Users should note that “local option” may apply to home delivery practices in certain jurisdictions. In other words, even in jurisdictions which APIS has coded as allowing home delivery under State law, it is possible that local ordinances may restrict or ban home delivery of recreational cannabis products in specific sub-state jurisdictions. (For more information on this subject, see the Local Authority variable in Recreational Use of Cannabis: Volume 1.) APIS does not document policies established by local governments.

9. The APIS treatment of Open Container does not address: (a) Prohibitions on possession of recreational cannabis that apply only to underage persons; (b) Provisions that apply only to commercial or public vehicles, or to common carriers; (c) Provisions that prohibit only consumption of recreational cannabis in motor vehicles, or that prohibit only possession of an open container with the intent to consume or with evidence of having consumed recreational cannabis. Statutory or regulatory references to “passenger area” are interpreted as not including a locked glovebox or the area behind the last upright seat in a vehicle without a trunk; accordingly, a provision that otherwise prohibits open containers in the passenger area but which allows an open container to be possessed in either of these locations would still be considered as prohibiting open containers.

Explanatory Notes and Limitations Applicable to All APIS Policy Topics

1. State law may permit local jurisdictions to impose requirements in addition to those mandated by State law. Alternatively, State law may prohibit local legislation on this topic, thereby preempting local powers. For more information on the preemption doctrine, see the About Alcohol Policy page. APIS does not document policies established by local governments.

2. In addition to statutes and regulations, judicial decisions (case law) also may affect alcohol-related policies. APIS does not review case law except to determine whether judicial decisions have invalidated statutes or regulations that would otherwise affect the data presented in the comparison tables.

3. APIS reviews published administrative regulations. However, administrative decisions or directives that are not included in a State's published regulatory codes may have an impact on implementation. This possibility has not been addressed by the APIS research.

4. Statutes and regulations cited in tables on this policy topic may have been amended or repealed after the specific date or time period specified by the site user's search criteria.

5. The operation or enforcement of statutes or regulations affecting the policies addressed on APIS may have been suspended or modified by executive or administrative orders issued in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.  With the exception of the COVID-19 Digest and Dataset, APIS research does not address these orders or the effects they may have on the policies covered by APIS.

6. Policy changes in APIS are presented as of the date these changes take effect as law. Users should be aware that in some situations there may be a delay between the effective date of a law and the time a corresponding policy change occurs in practice. Because APIS research is based entirely on primary legal source materials (codified statutes and regulations and, on rare occasions, published court opinions), APIS is unable to accurately determine when policy changes may appear in practice.

7. If a conflict exists between a statute and a regulation addressing the same legal issue, APIS coding relies on the statute.

8. A comprehensive understanding of the data presented in the comparison tables for this policy topic requires examination of the applicable Row Notes and Jurisdiction Notes, which can be accessed from the body of the table via links in the Jurisdiction column.

The approach taken by the U.S. government to the use of cannabis by its citizens has a long and varied history.

Between 1840 and 1900, cannabis was legal and used medicinally in the United States. In 1860, the first Federal commission to study cannabis was created. By the 1890s, attitudes towards cannabis started to shift.

Recreational cannabis use in the U.S. started at the beginning of the 20th century, as did the movement to regulate its use. In 1914 the Harrison Act was enacted, which declared drug use a crime. In 1915, California became the first State to make it illegal to possess cannabis. In the 1930s, the then U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics warned of the increasing abuse of cannabis, and by 1937, 23 States had criminalized possession. Also, in 1937, the Marijuana Tax Act imposed a tax on cannabis and regulated its cultivation, possession, and distribution; violations could result in imprisonment. In 1942, marijuana was removed from the U.S. pharmacopeia. In 1956, cannabis was included in the Federal Narcotics Control Act, leading to strict Federal penalties for its possession.

In the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, codified at 21 U.S.C. § 801, et seq., the Federal government categorized marijuana as a Schedule I substance, meaning it was considered to have “a high potential for abuse,” “no currently accepted medical use in treatment,” and “a lack of accepted safety for use … under medical supervision.” 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(1).

This classification of cannabis under Federal law has a number of important consequences. First, the classification as a Schedule I substance involves significant penalties for those who illegally manufacture, distribute or possess the drug (see, e.g., 21 U.S.C. § 841; 21 U.S.C. § 844; 21 U.S.C. § 846).

Second, although numerous States have legalized the use of cannabis for either medicinal or recreational use, the status of cannabis as a controlled substance under Federal law has, for the most part, not changed. (See below for information regarding the DEA’s 2018 and 2020 reclassifications of the epilepsy drug Epidiolex, and regarding the 2018 Farm Bill’s removal of low-THC hemp from the Controlled Substances Act.)

The classification of cannabis under Federal law has led to reports that cannabis businesses operating lawfully under State law have experienced difficulties in obtaining banking services, claiming Federal tax deductions for operating expenses, and using the U.S. mail, among other issues.

The situation is also complicated with respect to the conduct of individuals. In particular, despite the success of legalization measures in numerous States, there remains a significant divergence between these State laws and the relevant Federal laws pertaining to cannabis.

For example, States that have legalized recreational use have tended to authorize the possession of limited amounts of cannabis for personal use by adults (typically 1 to 3 ounces for dried leaves and flowers, with other amounts for other products). But under Federal law, even simple possession, with no intent to distribute, of any amount of cannabis remains illegal and subject to civil penalty, currently set at $25,597 per violation. 21 U.S.C. § 844a(a); 28 C.F.R. § 76.2; 28 C.F.R. § 76.3; 28 C.F.R. § 85.5).

At least two Federal court decisions have upheld application of the Controlled Substances Act to cannabis-related conduct permitted under State law. See Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1 (2005) (application of CSA provisions criminalizing manufacture, distribution, or possession of marijuana to intrastate growers and users of marijuana for medical purposes did not violate Commerce Clause), on remand 500 F.3d 850 (9^th Cir. 2007) (no violation of 10^th Amendment in view of Supreme Court holding that Congress acted within bounds of its Commerce Clause authority when it criminalized purely intrastate manufacture, distribution, or possession of marijuana in Controlled Substances Act); Montana Caregivers Ass'n, LLC v. U.S., 841 F.Supp.2d 1147 (D. Mont. 2012) (even though Montana law permitted, in some circumstances, production and consumption of marijuana for medical purposes, Congress had power to prohibit that use under the Commerce Clause, and thus Federal government's enforcement of CSA did not violate 10^th Amendment), aff’d 526 Fed.Appx. 756 (9^th Cir. 2013).

To address this tension between Federal and State law, the Department of Justice (DOJ) issued a series of memoranda providing guidance with respect to Federal marijuana enforcement policy in the context of State legalization initiatives.

In 2013 the DOJ indicated that it would focus its enforcement efforts on only those cannabis-related activities that threaten the following specified Federal priorities:

1.    Preventing the distribution of marijuana to minors;

2.    Preventing revenue from the sale of marijuana from going to criminal enterprises, gangs, and cartels;

3.    Preventing the diversion of marijuana from States where it is legal under State law in some form to other States;

4.    Preventing State-authorized marijuana activity from being used as a cover or pretext for the trafficking of other illegal drugs or other illegal activity;

5.    Preventing violence and the use of firearms in the cultivation and distribution of marijuana;

6.    Preventing drugged driving and the exacerbation of other adverse public health consequences associated with marijuana use;

7.    Preventing the growing of marijuana on public lands and the attendant public safety and environmental dangers posed by marijuana production on public lands; and

8.    Preventing marijuana possession or use on Federal property.

(See Memorandum from James M. Cole, Deputy Attorney General, Guidance Regarding Marijuana Enforcement, Aug. 29, 2013: https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-announces-update-marijuana-enforcement-policy; https://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/resources/3052013829132756857467.pdf.)

In a 2014 memorandum the DOJ indicated that investigations and prosecutions of financial institutions or individuals providing banking services to marijuana-related businesses should be subject to the same eight enforcement priorities outlined in the memorandum of August 29, 2013. (See Memorandum for All United States Attorneys from James M. Cole, Deputy Attorney General, Guidance Regarding Marijuana Related Financial Crimes, Feb. 14, 2014: https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao-wdwa/legacy/2014/02/14/DAG%20Memo%20-%20Guidance%20Regarding%20Marijuana%20Related%20Financial%20Crimes%202%2014%2014%20(2).pdf.)

Another significant consequence of the classification of cannabis under Federal law has been that research institutions face restrictions in obtaining cannabis for investigating potential medical applications and treatment efficacy.

In response to this situation, in July 2015 a group of eight Democratic senators called for the Federal government to “facilitate scientific research on the potential health benefits of marijuana when used for medical purposes” by, among other things, reassessing marijuana’s classification as a Schedule I substance. (See Letter from Senators Warren, Merkley, Wyden, Mikulski, Markey, Boxer, Booker, and Gillibrand to HHS Secretary Burwell, ONDCP Director Botticelli, and DEA Acting Administrator Rosenberg, July 9, 2015: https://www.warren.senate.gov/files/documents/HHS_ONDCP_DEA_Marijuana_letter.pdf.)

In August 2016 the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) denied two petitions to reschedule marijuana under the Controlled Substances Act. (See https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2016/08/12/2016-17954/denial-of-petition-to-initiate-proceedings-to-reschedule-marijuana?utm_campaign=pi+subscription+mailing+list&utm_medium=email&utm_source=federalregister.gov and https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2016/08/12/2016-17960/denial-of-petition-to-initiate-proceedings-to-reschedule-marijuana?utm_campaign=pi+subscription+mailing+list&utm_medium=email&utm_source=federalregister.gov.) The DEA did, however, announce a policy change designed to foster cannabis research by allowing additional entities to apply to become registered with DEA so that they may grow and distribute marijuana for FDA-authorized research purposes. (See https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2016/08/12/2016-17955/applications-to-become-registered-under-the-controlled-substances-act-to-manufacture-marijuana-to?utm_campaign=pi+subscription+mailing+list&utm_medium=email&utm_source=federalregister.gov.)

In January 2018, the Justice Department rescinded the Aug. 29, 2013 and Feb. 14, 2014 memoranda referenced above and directed Federal prosecutors to follow “the well-established principles that govern all federal prosecutions” when deciding which marijuana activities to prosecute under Federal law. (See Memorandum for All United States Attorneys from Jefferson B. Sessions, Attorney General, Marijuana Enforcement, Jan. 4, 2018: https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-issues-memo-marijuana-enforcement ; https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1022196/download.)

In June 2018 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug Epidiolex, an oral solution containing cannabidiol (CBD) extracted from the cannabis plant, for the treatment of seizures associated with two rare and severe forms of epilepsy, in patients two years of age and older. (See FDA News Release, June 25, 2018: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm611046.htm.) Following this action, the DEA rescheduled the Epidiolex formulation from Schedule I to Schedule V of the Controlled Substances Act (see DEA Final Order, Sep. 28, 2018: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/09/28/2018-21121/schedules-of-controlled-substances-placement-in-schedule-v-of-certain-fda-approved-drugs-containing). In 2020 the DEA removed Epidiolex from the controlled substances schedules altogether (see https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/dea-removes-cbd-from-controlled-71065/). In the United States, Epidiolex is currently available to patients by prescription.

In December 2018, Congress passed and the President signed the 2018 Farm Bill (known as H.R.2, the “Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018”), which included a provision removing low-THC hemp (defined as cannabis with a THC concentration of not more than 0.3 percent on a dry weight basis) from the Controlled Substances Act. (See Public Law 115-334 §§ 10113, 12619: https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/2/text.)

On October 6, 2022, President Biden issued a presidential proclamation pardoning individuals who committed or were convicted of simple marijuana possession offenses under the Controlled Substances Act. The proclamation applies only to Federal offenses, including D.C. Code offenses, but does not apply to offenses under State or local law. Pres. Proc. No. 10467, 87 F.R. 61441. A second presidential proclamation dated December 22, 2023, pardoned additional individuals who committed or were convicted of simple possession of marijuana, attempted simple possession of marijuana, or use of marijuana in violation of the Controlled Substances Act, the D.C. Code, and related provisions in the Code of Federal Regulations prohibiting simple possession or use of marijuana on Federal properties or installations, or in other locales. Pres. Proc. No. 10688, 88 F.R. 90083.

Also in 2022, Congress passed and the President signed the “Medical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research Expansion Act,” establishing a new registration process designed to facilitate medical research on marijuana. (See H.R.8454 — 117th Congress, 2021-2022.)

On August 29, 2023, Dr. Rachel Levine, Assistant Secretary for Health of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services formally recommended that the DEA reclassify cannabis from a Schedule I drug to a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Substances Act. Schedule I focuses on substances with no accepted medical use and a high possibility of misuse. In contrast, a Schedule III drug classification focuses on substances with legitimate medical uses and moderate to low possibility of physical and psychological dependence.

On May 16, 2024, the Justice Department submitted a notice of proposed rulemaking, initiating a formal rulemaking process to transfer marijuana from a Schedule I to a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Substances Act.  See https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-submits-proposed-regulation-reschedule-marijuana ; https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Scheduling%20NPRM%20508.pdf .

As of this writing, no final decision has been reached about rescheduling cannabis on the Federal level.

Source: Deschaine, D., Dzwierzynski, J., & Gora, L. (2023). HHS Recommends Re-Classification of Marijuana as a Schedule III Controlled Substance – A Bellwether for the Future of Cannabis-ness. JD Supra. https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/hhs-recommends-re-classification-of-9… . Accessed October 3, 2023.

FEDERAL CITATIONS AND RELEVANT TEXT EXCERPTS 

21 U.S.C. § 812

§ 812. Schedules of controlled substances

(a) Establishment

There are established five schedules of controlled substances, to be known as schedules I, II, III, IV, and V. Such schedules shall initially consist of the substances listed in this section. * * *

(b) Placement on schedules; findings required

Except where control is required by United States obligations under an international treaty, convention, or protocol, in effect on October 27, 1970, and except in the case of an immediate precursor, a drug or other substance may not be placed in any schedule unless the findings required for such schedule are made with respect to such drug or other substance. The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows:

(1) Schedule I--

(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.

(B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.

(C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.

* * *

(3) Schedule III--

(A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.

(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.

(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.

* * *

(c) Initial schedules of controlled substances

Schedules I, II, III, IV, and V shall, unless and until amended1 pursuant to section 811 of this title, consist of the following drugs or other substances, by whatever official name, common or usual name, chemical name, or brand name designated:

Schedule I

* * *

(c) Unless specifically excepted or unless listed in another schedule, any material, compound, mixture, or preparation, which contains any quantity of the following hallucinogenic substances, or which contains any of their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers whenever the existence of such salts, isomers, and salts of isomers is possible within the specific chemical designation:

(1) 3,4-methylenedioxy amphetamine.

(2) 5-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy amphetamine.

(3) 3,4,5-trimethoxy amphetamine.

(4) Bufotenine.

(5) Diethyltryptamine.

(6) Dimethyltryptamine.

(7) 4-methyl-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine.

(8) Ibogaine.

(9) Lysergic acid diethylamide.

(10) Marihuana.

(11) Mescaline.

(12) Peyote.

(13) N-ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate.

(14) N-methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate.

(15) Psilocybin.

(16) Psilocyn.

(17) Tetrahydrocannabinols, except for tetrahydrocannabinols in hemp (as defined under section 1639o of Title 7).

(18) 4-methylmethcathinone (Mephedrone).

(19) 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV).

(20) 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-E).

(21) 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-D).

(22) 2-(4-Chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-C).

(23) 2-(4-Iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-I).

(24) 2-[4-(Ethylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-2).

(25) 2-[4-(Isopropylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-4).

(26) 2-(2,5-Dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-H).

(27) 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-nitro-phenyl)ethanamine (2C-N).

(28) 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-P).

(d)(1) Unless specifically exempted or unless listed in another schedule, any material, compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of cannabimimetic agents, or which contains their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers whenever the existence of such salts, isomers, and salts of isomers is possible within the specific chemical designation.

(2) In paragraph (1):

(A) The term “cannabimimetic agents” means any substance that is a cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1 receptor) agonist as demonstrated by binding studies and functional assays within any of the following structural classes:

(i) 2-(3-hydroxycyclohexyl)phenol with substitution at the 5-position of the phenolic ring by alkyl or alkenyl, whether or not substituted on the cyclohexyl ring to any extent.

(ii) 3-(1-naphthoyl)indole or 3-(1-naphthylmethane)indole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring, whether or not further substituted on the indole ring to any extent, whether or not substituted on the naphthoyl or naphthyl ring to any extent.

(iii) 3-(1-naphthoyl)pyrrole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the pyrrole ring, whether or not further substituted in the pyrrole ring to any extent, whether or not substituted on the naphthoyl ring to any extent.

(iv) 1-(1-naphthylmethylene)indene by substitution of the 3-position of the indene ring, whether or not further substituted in the indene ring to any extent, whether or not substituted on the naphthyl ring to any extent.

(v) 3-phenylacetylindole or 3-benzoylindole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent, whether or not substituted on the phenyl ring to any extent.

(B) Such term includes--

(i) 5-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-2-[(1R,3S)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-phenol (CP-47,497);

(ii) 5-(1,1-dimethyloctyl)-2-[(1R,3S)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-phenol (cannabicyclohexanol or CP-47,497 C8-homolog);

(iii) 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018 and AM678);

(iv) 1-butyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-073);

(v) 1-hexyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-019);

(vi) 1-[2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl]-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-200);

(vii) 1-pentyl-3-(2-methoxyphenylacetyl)indole (JWH-250);

(viii) 1-pentyl-3-[1-(4-methoxynaphthoyl)]indole (JWH-081);

(ix) 1-pentyl-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-122);

(x) 1-pentyl-3-(4-chloro-1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-398);

(xi) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (AM2201);

(xii) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole (AM694);

(xiii) 1-pentyl-3-[(4-methoxy)-benzoyl]indole (SR-19 and RCS-4);

(xiv) 1-cyclohexylethyl-3-(2-methoxyphenylacetyl)indole (SR-18 and RCS-8); and

(xv) 1-pentyl-3-(2-chlorophenylacetyl)indole (JWH-203).

* * *

Schedule III

(a) Unless specifically excepted or unless listed in another schedule, any material, compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of the following substances having a stimulant effect on the central nervous system:

(1) Amphetamine, its salts, optical isomers, and salts of its optical isomers.

(2) Phenmetrazine and its salts.

(3) Any substance (except an injectable liquid) which contains any quantity of methamphetamine, including its salts, isomers, and salts of isomers.

(4) Methylphenidate.

(b) Unless specifically excepted or unless listed in another schedule, any material, compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of the following substances having a depressant effect on the central nervous system:

(1) Any substance which contains any quantity of a derivative of barbituric acid, or any salt of a derivative of barbituric acid.

(2) Chorhexadol.

(3) Glutethimide.

(4) Lysergic acid.

(5) Lysergic acid amide.

(6) Methyprylon.

(7) Phencyclidine.

(8) Sulfondiethylmethane.

(9) Sulfonethylmethane.

(10) Sulfonmethane.

(c) Nalorphine.

(d) Unless specifically excepted or unless listed in another schedule, any material, compound, mixture, or preparation containing limited quantities of any of the following narcotic drugs, or any salts thereof:

(1) Not more than 1.8 grams of codeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with an equal or greater quantity of an isoquinoline alkaloid of opium.

(2) Not more than 1.8 grams of codeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, non-narcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(3) Not more than 300 milligrams of dihydrocodeinone per 100 milliliters or not more than 15 milligrams per dosage unit, with a fourfold or greater quantity of an isoquinoline alkaloid of opium.

(4) Not more than 300 milligrams of dihydrocodeinone per 100 milliliters or not more than 15 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(5) Not more than 1.8 grams of dihydrocodeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(6) Not more than 300 milligrams of ethylmorphine per 100 milliliters or not more than 15 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(7) Not more than 500 milligrams of opium per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams, or not more than 25 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(8) Not more than 50 milligrams of morphine per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts.

(e) Anabolic steroids.

* * *

21 U.S.C. § 841

§ 841. Prohibited acts A

(a) Unlawful acts

Except as authorized by this subchapter, it shall be unlawful for any person knowingly or intentionally--

(1) to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, a controlled substance; or

(2) to create, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to distribute or dispense, a counterfeit substance.

(b) Penalties

Except as otherwise provided in section 849, 859, 860, or 861 of this title, any person who violates subsection (a) of this section shall be sentenced as follows:

(1)(A) In the case of a violation of subsection (a) of this section involving--

* * *

(vii) 1000 kilograms or more of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of marihuana, or 1,000 or more marihuana plants regardless of weight;

* * *

such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment which may not be less than 10 years or more than life and if death or serious bodily injury results from the use of such substance shall be not less than 20 years or more than life, a fine not to exceed the greater of that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $10,000,000 if the defendant is an individual or $50,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. If any person commits such a violation after a prior conviction for a serious drug felony or serious violent felony has become final, such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not less than 15 years and not more than life imprisonment and if death or serious bodily injury results from the use of such substance shall be sentenced to life imprisonment, a fine not to exceed the greater of twice that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $20,000,000 if the defendant is an individual or $75,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. If any person commits a violation of this subparagraph or of section 849, 859, 860, or 861 of this title after 2 or more prior convictions for a serious drug felony or serious violent felony have become final, such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not less than 25 years and fined in accordance with the preceding sentence. * * *

(B) In the case of a violation of subsection (a) of this section involving--

* * *

(vii) 100 kilograms or more of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of marihuana, or 100 or more marihuana plants regardless of weight;

* * *

such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment which may not be less than 5 years and not more than 40 years and if death or serious bodily injury results from the use of such substance shall be not less than 20 years or more than life, a fine not to exceed the greater of that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $5,000,000 if the defendant is an individual or $25,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. If any person commits such a violation after a prior conviction for a serious drug felony or serious violent felony has become final, such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment which may not be less than 10 years and not more than life imprisonment and if death or serious bodily injury results from the use of such substance shall be sentenced to life imprisonment, a fine not to exceed the greater of twice that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $8,000,000 if the defendant is an individual or $50,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. * * *

* * *

(D) In the case of less than 50 kilograms of marihuana, except in the case of 50 or more marihuana plants regardless of weight, 10 kilograms of hashish, or one kilogram of hashish oil, such person shall, except as provided in paragraphs (4) and (5) of this subsection, be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not more than 5 years, a fine not to exceed the greater of that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $250,000 if the defendant is an individual or $1,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. If any person commits such a violation after a prior conviction for a felony drug offense has become final, such person shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not more than 10 years, a fine not to exceed the greater of twice that authorized in accordance with the provisions of Title 18 or $500,000 if the defendant is an individual or $2,000,000 if the defendant is other than an individual, or both. * * *

* * *

21 U.S.C. § 844

§ 844. Penalties for simple possession

(a) Unlawful acts; penalties

It shall be unlawful for any person knowingly or intentionally to possess a controlled substance unless such substance was obtained directly, or pursuant to a valid prescription or order, from a practitioner, while acting in the course of his professional practice, or except as otherwise authorized by this subchapter or subchapter II. * * * Any person who violates this subsection may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not more than 1 year, and shall be fined a minimum of $1,000, or both, except that if he commits such offense after a prior conviction under this subchapter or subchapter II, or a prior conviction for any drug, narcotic, or chemical offense chargeable under the law of any State, has become final, he shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment for not less than 15 days but not more than 2 years, and shall be fined a minimum of $2,500, except, further, that if he commits such offense after two or more prior convictions under this subchapter or subchapter II, or two or more prior convictions for any drug, narcotic, or chemical offense chargeable under the law of any State, or a combination of two or more such offenses have become final, he shall be sentenced to a term of imprisonment for not less than 90 days but not more than 3 years, and shall be fined a minimum of $5,000. * * * The imposition or execution of a minimum sentence required to be imposed under this subsection shall not be suspended or deferred. Further, upon conviction, a person who violates this subsection shall be fined the reasonable costs of the investigation and prosecution of the offense, including the costs of prosecution of an offense as defined in sections 1918 and 1920 of Title 28, except that this sentence shall not apply and a fine under this section need not be imposed if the court determines under the provision of Title 18 that the defendant lacks the ability to pay.

* * *

21 U.S.C. § 844a

§ 844a. Civil penalty for possession of small amounts of certain controlled substances

(a) In general

Any individual who knowingly possesses a controlled substance that is listed in section 841(b)(1)(A) of this title in violation of section 844 of this title in an amount that, as specified by regulation of the Attorney General, is a personal use amount shall be liable to the United States for a civil penalty in an amount not to exceed $10,000 for each such violation.

* * *

21 U.S.C. § 846

§ 846. Attempt and conspiracy

Any person who attempts or conspires to commit any offense defined in this subchapter shall be subject to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense, the commission of which was the object of the attempt or conspiracy.

28 C.F.R. § 76.2

§ 76.2 Definitions.

* * *

(h) The term Personal Use Amount means possession of controlled substances in circumstances where there is no other evidence of an intent to distribute, or to facilitate the manufacturing, compounding, processing, delivering, importing or exporting of any controlled substance. * * * The following criteria shall be used to determine whether an amount of controlled substance in a particular case is in fact a personal use amount. The absence of any of the factors listed in paragraphs (h)(1) through (h)(5) of this section and the existence of the factor in paragraph (h)(6) of this section shall be relevant, although not necessarily conclusive, to establish that the possession was for personal use, and amounts in excess of those listed in paragraph (h)(6) of this section may be determined to be personal use amounts where circumstances indicate possession of the substance without an intent to distribute or to facilitate the manufacturing, compounding, processing, delivering, importing or exporting of the controlled substance.

(1) Evidence, such as drug scales, drug distribution paraphernalia, drug records, drug packaging material, method of drug packaging, drug “cutting” agents and other equipment, that indicates an intent to process, package or distribute a controlled substance;

(2) Other information indicating possession of a controlled substance with intent to distribute;

(3) The controlled substance is related to large amounts of cash or any amount of prerecorded government funds;

(4) The controlled substance is possessed under circumstances that indicate such a controlled substance is a sample intended for distribution in anticipation of a transaction involving large amounts, or is part of a larger delivery; or

(5) Statements by the possessor, or otherwise attributable to the possessor, including statements of co-conspirators, that indicate possession with intent to distribute.

(6) The amounts do not exceed the following:

(i) One gram of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of heroin;

(ii) One gram of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of—

(A) Coca leaves, except coca leaves and extracts of coca leaves from which cocaine, ecgonine, and derivations of ecgonine or their salts have been removed;

(B) Cocaine, its salts, optical and geometric isomers, and salts of isomers;

* * *

(iii) 1/10 gram of a mixture or substance described in paragraph (h)(6)(ii) of this section which contains cocaine base;

(iv) 1/10 gram of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of phencyclidine (PCP);

(v) 500 micrograms of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD);

(vi) One ounce of a mixture or substance containing a detectable among of marijuana;

(vii) One gram of methamphetamine, its salts, isomers, and salts of its isomers, or one gram of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of methamphetamine, its salts, isomers, or salts of its isomers.

* * *

28 C.F.R. § 76.3

§ 76.3 Basis for civil penalty.

(a) Any individual who knowingly possesses a controlled substance that is listed in § 76.2(h) in violation of 21 U.S.C. 844a shall be liable to the United States for a civil penalty in an amount of not to exceed $10,000 for each such violation occurring before September 29, 1999, and not to exceed $11,000 for each such violation occurring on or after September 29, 1999. For civil penalties assessed after August 1, 2016, whose associated violations occurred after November 2, 2015, see the civil penalty amount as provided in 28 CFR 85.5.

* * *

(c) A civil penalty may not be assessed under this part if the individual previously was convicted of a federal or state offense relating to a controlled substance as defined in section 102 of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 802).

(d) A civil penalty may not be assessed on an individual under this part on more than two separate occasions.

* * *

28 C.F.R. § 85.5

§ 85.5 Adjustments to penalties for violations occurring after November 2, 2015.

(a) For civil penalties assessed after February 12, 2024, whose associated violations occurred after November 2, 2015, the civil monetary penalties provided by law within the jurisdiction of the Department are adjusted as set forth in the seventh column of table 1 to this section.

* * *

(d) All figures set forth in table 1 to this section are maximum penalties, unless otherwise indicated.

Table 1 to § 85.5

U.S.C. citation * * *  CFR citation  * * *    DOJ penalty assessed after 2/12/2024 ($)

* * *

21 U.S.C. 844a(a)   * * *    28 CFR 76.3(a)       * * *    25,597

* * *

Source for all citations on this page: www.govinfo.gov/, a service of the U.S. Government Publishing Office (GPO). Excerpts from the United States Code are current as of 2023. Excerpts from the Code of Federal Regulations are current as of 2024. Excerpts from Public Laws of Congress are current as of the year of enactment. The GPO’s Public Domain & Copyright Notice is available at https://www.govinfo.gov/about/policies#copyright .

References are listed in the following categories:

• Legalization
• Federal
• Pricing
• Taxation
• Underage Use
• Impaired Driving
• Public Health Effects
• Marketing and Advertising
• Public Consumption
• Packaging, Labelling, and Warnings

Legalization

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78. Steinberg, J., Unger, J. B., Hallett, C., Williams, E., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., & Cousineau, M. R. (2020). A tobacco control framework for regulating public consumption of cannabis: Multistate analysis and policy implications. American Journal of Public Health, 110(2), 203-208.
79. Stohr, M., Makin, D., Stanton, D., Hemmens, C., Willits, D., Lovrich, N., Meize, M., Snyder, J., Lu, R., & Wu, G. (2020). An evolution rather than a revolution: Cannabis legalization implementation from the perspective of the police in Washington state. Justice Evaluation Journal 3, no. 2: 267-293.
80. Subritzky, T., Pettigrew, S., & Lenton, S. (2015). Issues in the implementation and evolution of the commercial recreational marijuana market in Colorado. The International Journal of Drug Policy, 27: 1-12.
81. Tilburg, W. C., Hodge Jr, J. G., & Gourdet, C. (2019). Emerging public health law and policy issues concerning state medical cannabis programs. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 47(2_suppl), 108-111.
82. Veligati, S., Howdeshell, S., Beeler-Stinn, S., Lingam, D., Allen, P. C., Chen, L. S., & Grucza, R. A. (2020). Changes in alcohol and cigarette consumption in response to medical and recreational cannabis legalization: Evidence from US state tax receipt data. International Journal of Drug Policy, 75, 102585.
83. Wadsworth, E., & Hammond, D. (2020). Out-of-state cannabis purchases in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 207, 107822.
84. Wallach, P. (2014). Washington’s Marijuana Legalization Grows Knowledge, Not Just Pot: A Report on the State’s Strategy to Assess Reform. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Center for Effective Public Management. Retrieved from: http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2014/08/25-wash…
85. Wiens, T., Lenk, K.M., Fabian, L.E., & Erickson, D.J. (2018). Law enforcement practices in the first two states in U.S. to legalize recreational marijuana. International Journal of Drug Policy, 61, 38–43. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.08.018
86. Yates, D., & Speer, J. (2018). Over and under-regulation in the Colorado Cannabis industry – A data-analytic perspective. International Journal of Drug Policy, 59, 63–66. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.06.00

Federal

1. Cole, J.M. (2013). Guidance Regarding Marijuana Enforcement: Memorandum for all U.S. Attorneys. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Deputy Attorney General. Retrieved from: http://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/resources/3052013829132756857467.pdf
2. Gravelle, J.G., & Lowry, S. (2014). Federal Proposals to Tax Marijuana: An Economic Analysis. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
3. Pacula, R.L., Kilmer, B., Wagenaar, A.C., Chaloupka, F.J., & Caulkins, J.P. (2014). Developing public health regulations for marijuana: Lessons from alcohol and tobacco. American Journal of Public Health, 104(6): 1021-1028.
4. Roche, Jr., E.J. ((2013, Winter). Federal Income Taxation of Medical Marijuana Businesses. Tax Lawyer, 66(2).
5. Room, R., Fischer, B., Hall, W., Lenton, S., & Reuter, P. (2010). Cannabis Policy: Moving Beyond Stalemate. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Pricing

1. Amlung, M., Reed, D., Morris, V., Aston, E., Metrik, J., & MacKillop, J. (2018). Price Elasticity of Illegal vs Legal Cannabis: A Behavioral Economic Substitutability Analysis. Addiction. doi: 10.1111/add.14437.
2. Barry, R.A., Hiilamo, H., & Glantz, S.A. (2014). Waiting for the opportune moment: The tobacco industry and marijuana legalization. Milbank Quarterly, 92(2): 207-242.
3. Ben Lakhdar, Christian, Nicolas G. Vaillant, and François-Charles Wolff. (2016). Price elasticity of demand for cannabis: does potency matter?. Addiction Research & Theory 24(4), 300-312. doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2016.1139699.
4. Caulkins, J.P., Bao, Y., Davenport, S., Fahli, I., Guo, Y., Kinnard, K., & Kilmer, B. (2018). Big data on a big new market: Insights from Washington State’s legal cannabis market. International Journal of Drug Policy, 57, 86–94. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.031
5. Caulkins, J.P., Bao, Y., Davenport, S., Fahli, I., Guo, Y., Kinnard, K., Najewicz, M., Renaud, L., & Kilmer, B. (2018). Big data on a big new market: Insights from Washington State's legal cannabis market. Int J Drug Policy, 57, 86-94. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.031. Epub 2018 Apr 27. PMID: 29709847.
6. Childs, J., & Stevens, J. (2021). A cannabis pricing mistake from California to Canada: government can’t tax cannabis optimally. Applied Economics Letters 28, no. 9: 779-783.
7. Davenport, S. (2019). Price and product variation in Washington's recreational cannabis market. International Journal of Drug Policy, 102547.
8. Donnan, J. R., Johnston, K., Najafizada, M., & Bishop, L. D. (2023). Drivers of Purchase Decisions Among Consumers of Dried Flower Cannabis Products–A Discrete Choice Experiment. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-22.
9. Hunt, P., & Pacula, R.L. (2017). Early impacts of marijuana legalization: An evaluation of prices in Colorado and Washington. Journal of Primary Prevention, 38(3): 221-248. doi: 10.1007/s10935-017-0471-x.
10. Marinello, S. (2023). Social Media Marketing Practices of Illinois Recreational Cannabis Dispensaries in the First Year of Legal Sales: Product Promotions, Branding, and Price Promotions. Journal of Drug Issues, 00220426231159542.
11. Ours, V., Jan, C., & Williams, J. (2007). Cannabis prices and dynamics of cannabis use. Journal of Health Economics, 26(3): 578-596.
12. Ours, V., & Williams, J. (2012). The effects of cannabis use on physical and mental health. Journal of Health Economics, 31(4): 564-577.
13. Pacula, R.L., & Lundberg, R. (2014). Why changes in price matter when thinking about marijuana policy: A review of the literature on the elasticity of demand. Public Health Reviews, 35(2): 1-18.
14. Shi, Y., Cao, Y., Shang, C., & Pacula, R. L. (2019). The impacts of potency, warning messages, and price on preferences for Cannabis flower products. International Journal of Drug Policy, 74, 1-10.
15. Smart, R., Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., Davenport, S., & Midgette, G. (2017).  Variation in cannabis potency and prices in a newly legal market: Evidence from 30 million cannabis sales in Washington state. Addiction, 112(12): 2167–2177. doi: 10.1111/Add.13886.
16. Wadsworth, E., Driezen, P., Pacula, R. L., Kilmer, B., & Hammond, D. (2023). Prices and Purchase Sources for Dried Cannabis Flower in the United States, 2019–2020. Cannabis and cannabinoid research, 8(5), 923-932.

Taxation

1. Ball, W. D. (2014, April 17). A new approach to marijuana regulation: In support of a potency tax. Jurist. Retrieved from: http://jurist.org/forum/2014/04/david-ball-marijuana-potency.php
2. Barry, R.A., Hiilamo, H., & Glantz, S.A. (2014). Waiting for the opportune moment: The tobacco industry and marijuana legalization. Milbank Quarterly, 92(2): 207-242.
3. Carnevale, J.T., Kagan, R., Murphy, P.J., & Esrick, J. (2017). A practical framework for regulating for-profit recreational marijuana in US States: Lessons from Colorado and Washington. Int J Drug Policy, 42, 71-85. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.03.001. Epub 2017 Mar 31. PMID: 28366598.
4. Caulkins, J.P., Hawken, A., Kilmer, B., Kleiman, M.A.R., Pfrommer, K., Pruess, J., & Shaw, T. (2013). High tax states: Options for gleaning revenue from legal cannabis. Oregon Law Review, 91: 1041-1068.
5. Caulkins, J.P., Morris, E., & Ratnatunga, R. (2010). Smuggling and Excise Tax Evasion for Legalized Marijuana: Lessons from Other Excise Taxes. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
6. Gravelle, J.G., & Lowry, S. (2014). Federal Proposals to Tax Marijuana: An Economic Analysis. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
7. Hansen, B., Miller, K., & Weber, C. (2017). The taxation of recreational marijuana: Evidence from Washington state. NBER Working Paper No. 23632, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi: 10.3386/w23632.
8. Hansen, B., Miller, K., Seo, B., & Weber, C. (2020). Taxing the potency of sin goods: Evidence from recreational cannabis and liquor markets. National Tax Journal 73, no. 2.
9. Miller, K., & Seo, B. (2021). The effect of cannabis legalization on substance demand and tax revenues. National Tax Journal 74, no. 1: 107-145.
10. Roche, Jr., E.J. (2013, Winter). Federal income taxation of medical marijuana businesses. Tax Lawyer, 66(2). Retrieved from: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2308946
11. Veligati, S., Howdeshell, S., Beeler-Stinn, S., Lingam, D., Allen, P., Chen, L.-S., & Grucza, R. (2019). Changes in alcohol and tobacco consumption in response to medical and recreational cannabis legalization: Evidence from U.S. state tax receipt data. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3337354

Underage Use

1. Anderson, D.M., Hansen, B., Rees, D.I., & Sabia, J.J. (2019). Association of marijuana laws with teen marijuana use: new estimates from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveys. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(9), 879-881.
2. Anderson, D.M., Rees, D.I., Sabia, J.J., & Safford, S. (2021). Association of Marijuana Legalization With Marijuana Use Among US High School Students, 1993-2019. JAMA Network Open 4, no. 9: e2124638-e2124638.
3. Alley, Z.M., Kerr, D.C., & Bae, H. (2020). Trends in college students’ alcohol, nicotine, prescription opioid and other drug use after recreational marijuana legalization: 2008–2018. Addictive Behaviors, 102, 106212.
4. Arria, A.M., Caldeira, K.M., Bugbee, B.A.; Vincent, K.B. & O’Grady, K.E. (2015). The academic consequences of marijuana use during college. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3): 564-75.
5. Bailey, J.A., Epstein, M., Roscoe, J.N., Oesterle, S., Kosterman, R., & Hill, K.G. (2020). Marijuana legalization and youth marijuana, alcohol, and cigarette use and norms. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 59, no. 3: 309-316.
6. Blevins, C.E., Marsh, E., Banes, K.E., Stephens, R.S., Walker, D.D., & Roffman, R.A. (2018). The implications of cannabis policy changes in Washington on adolescent perception of risk, norms, attitudes, and substance use. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment, 12, 117822181881549. doi: 10.1177/1178221818815491
7. Borodovsky, J.T., Lee, D.C., Crosier, B.S., Gabrielli, J.L., Sargent, J.D., & Budney, A.J. (2017). U.S. cannabis legalization and use of vaping and edible products among youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 177: 299-306. doi: 10.1016/J.Drugalcdep.2017.02.017. Epub 2017 Jun 9.
8. Boyle, H.K., Gunn, R.L., López, G., Fox, O.S., & Merrill, J.E. (2021). Qualitative examination of simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use reasons, evaluations, and patterns among heavy drinking young adults. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors.
9. Brooks-Russell, A., Ma, M., Levinson, A.H., Kattari, L., Kirchner, T., Goodell, E.M.A., & Johnson, R.M. (2018). Adolescent marijuana use, marijuana-related perceptions, and use of other substances before and after initiation of retail marijuana sales in Colorado (2013–2015). Prevention Science, 20(2), 185–193. doi: 10.1007/s11121-018-0933-2
10. Buller, D.B., Woodall, W.G., Saltz, R., Grayson, A., Buller, M.K., Cutter, G.R., Svendsen, S., & Liu, X. (2021). Randomized Trial Testing an Online Responsible Vendor Training in Recreational Marijuana Stores in the United States. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 82, no. 2: 204-213.
11. Buller, D.B., Woodall, W.G., Saltz, R., & Starling, R. (2016). Pseudo-underage assessment of compliance with identification regulations at retail marijuana outlets in Colorado. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(6), 868-872. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2016.77.868.
12. Carpino, M., Langille, D., Ilie, G., & Asbridge, M. (2020). Cannabis-related driving and passenger behaviours among high school students: a cross-sectional study using survey data. CMAJ Open 8, no. 4: E754.
13. Cerdá, M., Wall, M., Feng, T., Keyes, K.M., Sarvet, A., Schulenberg, J., O'Malley, P.M., Pacula, R.L., Galea, S., & Hasin, D.S. (2017). Association of state recreational marijuana laws with adolescent marijuana use. JAMA Pediatrics, 171(2): 142-149. doi: 10.1001/Jamapediatrics.2016.3624.
14. Cermak, T.L., & Banys, P. (2016). Prevention of youthful marijuana use. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 48(1): 21-23. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2015.1117689. Epub 2016 Feb 18.
15. Chaffee, B. W., Couch, E. T., Wilkinson, M. L., Donaldson, C. D., Cheng, N. F., Ameli, N., ... & Gansky, S. A. (2023). Flavors increase adolescents’ willingness to try nicotine and cannabis vape products. Drug and alcohol dependence, 246, 109834.
16. Chaloupka, F.J., Grossman, M., & Tauras, J.A. (1999). The demand for cocaine and marijuana by youth. In F.J. Chaloupka, M. Grossman, W.K. Bickel, & H. Saffer (Eds.), The Economic Analysis of Substance Use and Abuse: An Integration of Econometrics and Behavioral Economic Research (pp. 133-156). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
17. Chaloupka, F.J., & Laixuthai, A. (1997, Summer). Do youths substitute alcohol and marijuana? Some econometric evidence. Eastern Economic Journal, 23(3): 253-276.
18. Cleveland, M.J., Feinberg, M.E., Osgood, D.W., & Moody, J. (2012). Do peers' parents matter? A new link between positive parenting and adolescent substance use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73(3), 423-433.
19. Coley, R.L., Kruzik, C., Ghiani, M., Carey, N., Hawkins, S.S., & Baum, C.F. (2020). Recreational marijuana legalization and adolescent use of marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol. Journal of Adolescent Health.
20. Colonna, R., Hand, C.L., Holmes, J.D., & Alvarez, L. (2021). Exploring youths’ beliefs towards cannabis and driving: A mixed method study. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 82: 429-439.
21. Coughlin, L.N., Bonar, E.E., Bohnert, A., Blow, F.C., Bauermeister, J.A., Cross, Y., Cunningham, R., Young, S.D., & Walton, M.A. (2021). Patterns of same-day alcohol and cannabis use in adolescents and young adults with risky alcohol use. Addiction Research & Theory: 1-7.
22. Cristello, J. V., Litt, D. M., Sutherland, M. T., & Trucco, E. M. (2023). Subjective norms as a mediator between exposure to online alcohol and marijuana content and offline use among adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Review.
23. Crost, B., & Guerrero, S. (2012).The effect of alcohol availability on marijuana use: Evidence from the minimum legal drinking age. Journal of Health Economics, 31(1): 112-121.
24. Crost, B., & Rees, D.I. (2013). The minimum legal drinking age and marijuana use: New estimates from the NLSY97. Journal of Health Economics, 32(2): 474-476.
25. Dai, H. (2019). Trends in single, dual, and poly use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana among US high-school students: 1991–2017. American Journal of Public Health. 109(8), 1138-1140. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2019.305122
26. D'Amico, E.J., Rodriguez, A., Dunbar, M.S., Firth, C.L., Tucker, J.S., Seelam, R., ... & Davis, J.P. (2020). Sources of cannabis among young adults and associations with cannabis-related outcomes. International Journal of Drug Policy, 86, 102971.
27. D’Amico, E.J., Tucker, J.S., Miles, J.N., Ewing, B.A., Shih, R.A., and Pedersen, E.R. (2016). Alcohol and marijuana use trajectories in a diverse longitudinal sample of adolescents: examining use patterns from age 11 to 17. Addiction. 111(10), 1825–35. doi: 10.1111/add.13442. Epub 2016 Jun 14. PMID: 27130360.
28. D’Amico, E.J., Tucker, J.S., Pedersen, E.R. and Shih, R.A. (2017). Understanding rates of marijuana use and consequences among adolescents in a changing legal landscape. Current addiction reports. 4(4), 343-349. Doi: 10.1007/s40429-017-0170-y. PMID: 29201592.
29. Davis, S., & Sloas, K. (2017). Driving while high: College student beliefs and behaviors. Journal of Addictive Behaviors, Therapy & Rehabilitation, 6(1). doi: 10.4172/2324-9005.1000164. Published Online: April 19, 2017.
30. De Faria, L., Mezey, L., & Winkler, A. (2021). Cannabis legalization and college mental health. Current Psychiatry Reports 23, no. 4: 1-9.
31. Degenhardt, L., Coffey, C., Romaniuk, H., Swift, W., Carlin, J.B., Hall, W.D., & Patton, G.C. (2013). The persistence of the association between adolescent cannabis use and common mental disorders into young adulthood. Addiction, 108: 124-133.
32. Dilley, J.A., Richardson, S.M., Kilmer, B., Pacula, R.L., Segawa, M.B., & Cerdá, M. (2019). Prevalence of cannabis use in youths after legalization in Washington state. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(2), 192. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.4458
33. Doggett, A., Belisario, K., McDonald, A. J., Ferro, M. A., Murphy, J. G., & MacKillop, J. (2023). Cannabis use frequency and cannabis-related consequences in high-risk young adults across cannabis legalization. JAMA network open, 6(9), e2336035-e2336035.
34. Dopke, C., Romm, K. F., & Berg, C. J. (2023). Parental openness and communication regarding cannabis and alcohol use with their children. The American journal on addictions.
35. Doran, Neal, David Strong, Mark G. Myers, John B. Correa, and Lyric Tully. "Post-Legalization Changes in Marijuana Use in a Sample of Young California Adults." Addictive Behaviors (2020): 106782.
36. Douglass, M. A., Stanley, L. R., Karoly, H. C., Prince, M. A., Crabtree, M. A., & Swaim, R. C. (2023). Patterns of simultaneous and nonsimultaneous use of cannabis and alcohol among American Indian adolescents. Addiction Research & Theory, 1-7.
37. Duan, Z., Wang, Y., Spears, C.A., Self-Brown, S.R., Weaver, S.R., Zheng, P., Eriksen, M.P., & Huang, J. (2022). Effect modification of legalizing recreational cannabis use on the association between e-cigarette use and future cannabis use among US adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 233, 109260. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109260
38. English, F., & Whitehill, J. M. (2023). Risk factors for adolescent cannabis use in a state with legal recreational cannabis: the role of parents, siblings, and friends. Clinical therapeutics, 45(6), 589-598.
39. Epstein, M., Bailey, J.A., Furlong, M., Steeger, C.M., & Hill, K.G. (2019). An intergenerational investigation of the associations between parental marijuana use trajectories and child functioning. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. doi: 10.1037/adb0000510
40. Fairlie, A. M., Calhoun, B. H., Graupensperger, S., Patrick, M. E., & Lee, C. M. Daily‐level simultaneous alcohol and marijuana use and its associations with alcohol use, marijuana use, and negative consequences in a young adult community sample. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research.
41. Fedorova, E.V., Wong, C.F., Conn, B.M., Ataiants, J., Iverson, E., & Lankenau, S.E. (2021). COVID-19’s Impact on Substance Use and Well-Being of Younger Adult Cannabis Users in California: A Mixed Methods Inquiry. Journal of Drug Issues: 00220426211052673.
42. Fleming, C. B., Walukevich-Dienst, K., Calhoun, B. H., & Lee, C. M. (2023). A longitudinal analysis of monthly changes in substance use in relation to negative consequences from alcohol and cannabis use in a community sample of young adults. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-22.
43. Freisthler B., Ponicki, W.R., Gaidus, A., and Gruenewald, P.J. (2016). A micro-temporal geospatial analysis of medical marijuana dispensaries and crime in Long Beach California. Addiction. 111(6), 1027–35. doi: 10.1111/add.13301. Epub 2016 Feb 18. PMID: 26748438.
44. Friese, B., Slater, M.D., Annechino, R., & Battle, R.S. (2016). Teen use of marijuana edibles: A focus group study of an emerging issue. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 37(3): 303-309. doi: 10.1007/S10935-016-0432-9.
45. Gonçalves, P. D., Bruzelius, E., Levy, N. S., Segura, L. E., Livne, O., Gutkind, S., ... & Martins, S. S. (2023). Recreational cannabis legislation and binge drinking in US adolescents and adults. International Journal of Drug Policy, 118, 104085.
46. González-Cano-Caballero, M., Torrejón-Guirado, M. C., Cano-Caballero, M. D., Mac Fadden, I., Barrera-Villalba, M. D. C., & Lima-Serrano, M. (2023)..Adolescents and youths’ opinions about the factors associated with cannabis use: a qualitative study based on the I-Change model. BMC nursing, 22(1), 114.
47. Goodwin, R.D., Kim, J.H., Cheslack-Postava, K., Weinberger, A.H., Wu, M., Wyka, K., & Kattan, M. (2021). Trends in cannabis use among adults with children in the home in the United States, 2004–2017: impact of state-level legalization for recreational and medical use. Addiction.
48. Graves, J.M., Whitehill, J.M., Miller, M.E., Brooks-Russell, A., Richardson, S.M., & Dilley, J.A. (2019). Employment and marijuana use among Washington state adolescents before and after legalization of retail marijuana. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 39–45. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.027
49. Guo, Y., Fleming, C.B., Stevens, A.L., Swaim, R.C., & Mason, W.A. (2021). Correlates of Solitary Alcohol and Cannabis Use among American Indian Adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence: 109155.
50. Guttmannova, K., Fleming, C. B., Rhew, I. C., Delawalla, M. L., Fairlie, A. M., Larimer, M. E., & Kilmer, J. R. (2023). Changes in Cannabis Use From 2014 to 2019 Among Young Adults in Washington State. American journal of preventive medicine.
51. Hall, W., and Lynskey, M. (2016). Why it is probably too soon to assess the public health effects of legalisation of recreational cannabis use in the USA. The Lancet Psychiatry. 3(9), 900–6. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30071-2. Epub 2016 Jun 28. PMID: 27374072.
52. Hamilton, A.D., Jang, J.B., Patrick, M.E., Schulenberg, J.E., & Keyes, K.M. (2019). Age, period and cohort effects in frequent cannabis use among US students: 1991–2018. Addiction, 114(10), 1763–1772. doi: 10.1111/add.14665
53. Hammond, C.J., Chaney, A., Hendrickson, B., & Sharma, P. (2020). Cannabis use among US adolescents in the era of marijuana legalization: a review of changing use patterns, comorbidity, and health correlates. International Review of Psychiatry, 32(3), 221-234.
54. Jackson, K.M., Sokolovsky, A.W., Gunn, R.L., & White, H.R. (2020). Consequences of alcohol and marijuana use among college students: Prevalence rates and attributions to substance-specific versus simultaneous use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors.
55. Johnson, R.M., Brooks-Russell, A., Ma, M., Fairman, B.J., Tolliver, R.L., & Levinson, A.H. (2016). Usual modes of marijuana consumption among high school students in Colorado. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(4), 580-588. doi:10.15288/jsad.2016.77.580.
56. Johnston, L.D., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.G., & Schulenberg, J.E. (2012). Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2011, Vol. I: Secondary School Students. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Retrieved from: http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol1_2011.pdf
57. Karoly, H. C., Mueller, R.L., Andrade, C.C., & Hutchison, K.E. (2021). THC and CBD effects on alcohol use among alcohol and cannabis co-users. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors.
58. Karoly, H. C., Prince, M. A., & Conner, B. T. (2023). Alcohol first, cannabis last: identification of an especially risky use pattern among individuals who co-use alcohol and cannabis. Substance Use & Misuse, 1-10.
59. Kerr, D. C., Levy, N. S., Bae, H., Boustead, A. E., & Martins, S. S. (2023). Cannabis and Alcohol Use by US Young Adults, 2008-2019: Changes in Prevalence after Recreational Cannabis Legalization. American journal of preventive medicine.
60. Kerr, W. C., Lui, C., & Ye, Y. (2017). Trends and age, period and cohort effects for marijuana use prevalence in the 1984–2015 US national alcohol surveys. Addiction, doi: 10.1111/Add.14031. Epub 2017 Oct 11.
61. Knapp, A.A., Lee, D.C., Borodovsky, J.T., Auty, S.G., Gabrielli, J., & Budney, A.J. (2018). Emerging trends in cannabis administration among adolescent cannabis users. J Adolesc Health. pii: S1054-139X(18)30301-X. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.012. [Epub ahead of print]. PMID: 30205931.
62. Knopf, A. (2021). Marijuana use by college students up, alcohol use down. The Brown University Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology Update 23, no. 11: 4-5.
63. Lee, J., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Kong, G. (2023). Social media use and cannabis vaping initiation among US youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 109949.
64. Lee, M.H., Kim-Godwin, Y.S., & Hur, H. (2021). Race/ethnicity differences in risk and protective factors for marijuana use among US adolescents. BMC Public Health 21, no. 1: 1-10.
65. Linakis, J.G., Thomas, S.A., Bromberg, J.R., Casper, T.C., Chun, T.H., Mello, M.J., Richards, R., et al. (2021). Adolescent alcohol use predicts cannabis use over a three year follow-up period. Substance Abuse: 1-6.
66. Lipperman-Kreda, S., and Grube, J.W. (2018). Impacts of marijuana commercialization on adolescents’ marijuana beliefs, use, and co-use with other substances. Journal of Adolescent Health. 63(1), 5-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.05.003. PMID: 30060857.
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51. Preuss, U.W., Huestis, M.A., Schneider, M., Hermann, D., Lutz, B., Hasan, A., Kambeitz, J., Wong, J., & Hoch, E. (2021). Cannabis use and car crashes: a review. Frontiers in Psychiatry 12.
52. Ramaekers, J.G. (2018). Driving under the influence of cannabis. Jama, 319(14), 1433. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.1334
53. Ramirez, A., Berning, A., Carr, K., et al. (2016). Marijuana, other drugs, and alcohol use by drivers in Washington state. Report No. DOT HS 812 299. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nti/pdf/812299-WashingtonStatedrugstudy.pdf.
54. Romano, E., Kelley-Baker, T., Hoff, S., Eichelberger, A., & Ramírez, A. (2019). Use of alcohol and cannabis among adults driving children in Washington State. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 80(2), 196–200. doi: 10.15288/jsad.2019.80.196
55. Romano, E., Torres-Saavedra, P., Voas, R.B., & Lacey, J.H. (2017). Marijuana and the risk of fatal car crashes: What can we learn from FARS and NRS data? Journal of Primary Prevention,  38(3): 315-328. doi: 10.1007/S10935-017-0478-3.
56. Scherer, M., Harrell, P., & Romano, E. (2015). Marijuana and other substance use among motor vehicle operators: A latent class analysis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 76(6): 916-23.
57. Salas-Wright, C. P., Hai, A. H., Vaughn, M. G., Hodges, J. C., & Goings, T. C. (2023). Driving under the influence of cannabis and alcohol: evidence from a national sample of young drivers. Addictive behaviors, 147, 107816.
58. Scott, B., Ward, N., Otto, J., & Finley, K. (2021). Modeling the system of beliefs that influence driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) in Washington State. Accident Analysis & Prevention 151: 105988.
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61. Steinemann, S., Galanis, D., Nguyen, T., & Biffl, W. (2018). Motor vehicle crash fatalities and  undercompensated care associated with legalization of marijuana. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 85(3), 566-571. doi: 10.1097/TA.0000000000001983. PMID: 29787529.
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Public Health Effects

1. Agrawal, A., Grucza, R.A., & Rogers, C.E. (2019). Public health implications of rising marijuana use in pregnancy in an age of increasing legalization—Reply. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(6), 607. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.0618
2. Aletraris, L., Graves, B. D., & Ndung’u, J. J. (2023). Assessing the impact of recreational cannabis legalization on cannabis use disorder and admissions to treatment in the United States. Current addiction reports, 1-12.
3. Azofeifa, A., Mattson, M.E., & Grant, A. (2016). Monitoring marijuana use in the United States:  Challenges in an evolving environment. JAMA, 316(17): 1765–1766. doi: 10.1001/Jama.2016.13696.
4. Azofeifa, A., Mattson, M.E., Schauer, G., McAfee, T., Grant, A., & Lyerla, R. (2016). National estimates of marijuana use and related indicators – National survey on drug use and health, United States, 2002–2014. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 65(11), 1–28. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.ss6511a1. PMID: 27584586.
5. Baraniecki, R., Panchal, P., Malhotra, D.D., Aliferis, A., & Zia, Z. (2021). Acute cannabis intoxication in the emergency department: the effect of legalization. BMC Emergency Medicine 21, no. 1: 1-8.
6. Blanchette, J.G., Lira, M.C., Heeren, T.C., & Naimi, T.S. (2020). Alcohol Policies in US States, 1999–2018. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 81(1), 58-67.
7. Blanco, C., Hasin, D.S., Wall, M.M., Flórez-Salamanca, L., Hoertel, N., Wang, S., Kerridge, B.T., Olfson, M. (2016). Cannabis use and risk of psychiatric disorders: Prospective evidence from a U.S. national longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(4): 388-95.
8. Bolts, O. L., Prince, M. A., & Noel, N. E. (2023). Expectancies that predict cannabis initiation in response to legalization. Substance Use & Misuse, 58(7), 939-946.
9. Braillon, A., & Bewley, S. (2018). Committee opinion no. 722: Marijuana use during pregnancy and lactation. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 131(1), 164. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002429. PMID: 28937574.
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14. Calvert, C.M., & Erickson, D. (2021). Recreational cannabis legalization and alcohol purchasing: a difference-in-differences analysis. Journal of Cannabis Research 3, no. 1: 1-10.
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18. Chiu, V., Leung, J., Hall, W., Stjepanović, D., & Degenhardt, L. (2021). Public health impacts to date of the legalisation of medical and recreational cannabis use in the USA. Neuropharmacology 193: 108610.
19. Compton, W.M., Han, B., Jones, C.M., & Blanco, C. (2019). Cannabis use disorders among adults in the United States during a time of increasing use of cannabis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 204, 107468.
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26. Dilley, J.A., Graves, J.M., Brooks-Russell, A., Whitehill, J.M., & Liebelt, E.L. (2021). Trends and Characteristics of Manufactured Cannabis Product and Cannabis Plant Product Exposures Reported to US Poison Control Centers, 2017-2019. JAMA Network Open 4, no. 5: e2110925-e2110925.
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38. Guttmannova, K., Lee, C.M., Kilmer, J.R., Fleming, C.B., Rhew, I.C., Kosterman, R., & Larimer, M.E. (2016). Impacts of changing marijuana policies on alcohol use in the United States. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 40(1): 33-46.
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41. Hall, W., & Lynskey, M. (2020). Assessing the public health impacts of legalizing recreational cannabis use: the US experience. World Psychiatry, 19(2), 179-186.
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89. Shover, C.L., Davis, C.S., Gordon, S.C., & Humphreys, K. (2019). Association between medical cannabis laws and opioid overdose mortality has reversed over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(26), 12624-12626.
90. Skelton, K.R., & Benjamin-Neelon, S.E. (2021). Characteristics Associated with Prenatal Cannabis Use Vary with Legality of Recreational Cannabis. Journal of Women's Health.
91. Skelton, K.R., Hecht, A.A., & Benjamin-Neelon, S.E. (2020). Recreational cannabis legalization in the US and maternal use during the preconception, prenatal, and postpartum periods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 909.
92. Smart, R., & Pacula, R.L. (2019). Early evidence of the impact of cannabis legalization on cannabis use, cannabis use disorder, and the use of other substances: Findings from state policy evaluations. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 1–20. doi: 10.1080/00952990.2019.1669626.
93. Sood, S., Trasande, L., Mehta-Lee, S.S., Brubaker, S.G., Ghassabian, A., & Jacobson, M.H. (2021). Maternal Cannabis Use in the Perinatal Period: Data From the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System Marijuana Supplement, 2016-2018. Journal of Addiction Medicine.
94. Stanton, D., Lovrich, N., Makin, D., Stohr, M., Willits, D., Hemmens, C., & Meize, M. (2020). Cannabis Legalization and the Policing of Boating Under the Influence in Washington State: Exploratory Research on Marine Officers' Perceptions. American Journal of Qualitative Research 4, no. 2: 1-19
95. Stevens, A.K., Aston, E.R., Gunn, R.L., Sokolovsky, A.W., Treloar Padovano, H., White, H.R., & Jackson, K.M. (2020). Does the Combination Matter? Examining the Influence of Alcohol and Cannabis Product Combinations on Simultaneous Use and Consequences in Daily Life. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.
96. Subbaraman, M.S., & Kerr, W.C. (2019). Subgroup trends in alcohol and cannabis co-use and related harms during the rollout of recreational cannabis legalization in Washington state. International Journal of Drug Policy. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.07.003
97. Tate, K., Taylor, J.L. & Sawyer, M.Q. (Eds.). (2014). Something’s in the Air: Race, Crime, and the Legalization of Marijuana. New York: Routledge.
98. Taylor, D.L., Bell, J.F., Adams, S.L., & Drake, C. (2021). Factors Associated With Cannabis Use During the Reproductive Cycle: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study of Women in States With Recreational and Medical Cannabis Legalization. Maternal and Child Health Journal: 1-10.
99. Terry-McElrath,Y.M., & O’Malley, P.M. (2021). Social Role, Behavior, and Belief Changes Associated With Driving After Using Marijuana Among U.S. Young Adults, and Comparisons With Driving After 5+ Drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs: 82:5, 584-594
100. Tomko, R. L., Gex, K. S., Davis, C. N., Schick, M. R., Kirkland, A. E., Squeglia, L. M., ... & McRae-Clark, A. L. (2023). Sex and Gender Differences in Simultaneous Alcohol and Cannabis Use: a Narrative Review. Current Addiction Reports, 1-10.
101. Volkow, N.D., Baler, R.D., Compton, W.M., & Weiss, S.R.B. (2014). Adverse health effects of marijuana use. New England Journal of Medicine, 370: 2219-2227.
102. Volkow, N.D., Han, B., Compton, W.M., & Mccance-Katz, E.F. (2019). Self-reported medical and nonmedical cannabis use among pregnant women in the United States. Jama, 322(2), 167. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.7982
103. Volkow, N.D., Swanson, J.M., Evins, A.E., DeLisi, L.E., Meier, M.H., Gonzalez, R., Bloomfield, M.A., Curran, H.V., & Baler, R. (2016). Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: A review. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(3): 292-7.
104. Waddell, J., McDonald, A., Shah, R., & Corbin, W. (2023). Daily Relations Among Alcohol and Cannabis Co-Use, Simultaneous Use, and Negative Consequences: A Day-Level Latent Profile Analysis. Cannabis.
105. Wadsworth, E., Driezen, P., Dilley, J. A., Gabrys, R., Jesseman, R., & Hammond, D. (2023). Proximity to legal cannabis stores in Canada and use of cannabis sources in the first three years of legalization, 2019-2021. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-22.
106. Wang, Y., Duan, Z., Self-Brown, S.R., Weaver, S.R., Spears, C.A., Zheng, P., Eriksen, M.P., & Huang, J. (2022). Longitudinal associations between e-cigarette use and onset of multiple modes of cannabis use among U.S. adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 131, 107316. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107316
107. Wen, J., Wen, H., Butler, J.S., & Talbert, J.C. (2021). The impact of medical and recreational marijuana laws on opioid prescribing in employer‐sponsored health insurance. Health Economics, 30(5), 989-1000. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4237
108. Williams, E., Trangenstein, P., Patterson, D., & Kerr, W. (2023). Higher Concentration of Marijuana Dispensaries in Neighborhoods with More Disadvantage Following Legalization in Washington.
109. Williams, J., & Bretteville-Jensen, A.L. (2014). Does liberalizing cannabis laws increase cannabis use? Journal of Health Economics, 36: 20-32.
110. Wong, C.F., Mendez, S., Conn, B.M., Iverson, E., & Lankenau, S.E. (2021). Attitudes and beliefs about recreational cannabis legalization among cannabis-using young adults in Los Angeles: Impact on concurrent cannabis practices and problematic cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 228: 109053.
111. Woodruff, K., Scott, K.A., & Roberts, S. (2021). Pregnant people’s experiences discussing their cannabis use with prenatal care providers in a state with legalized cannabis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 227: 108998.
112. Young-Wolff, K.C., Ray, G.T., Alexeeff, S.E., Adams, S.R., Does, M.B., Ansley, D., & Avalos, L.A. (2021). Rates of Prenatal Cannabis Use Among Pregnant Women Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA.
113. Zamengo, L., Frison, G., Zwitser, G., Salomone, A., & Freeman, T.P. (2020). Cannabis knowledge and implications for health: Considerations regarding the legalization of non-medical cannabis. Medicine, Science and the Law 60, no. 4: 309-314

Marketing and Advertising

1. Adhikari, S., Uppal, A., Mermelstein, R., Berger-Wolf, T., & Zheleva, E. (2021). Understanding the Dynamics between Vaping and Cannabis Legalization Using Twitter Opinions. arXiv preprint arXiv:2106.11029.
2. Allem, J.P., Escobedo, P., & Dharmapuri, L. (2020). Cannabis Surveillance With Twitter Data: Emerging Topics and Social Bots. American Journal of Public Health, 110(3), 357-362.
3. Berg, C. J., LoParco, C. R., Cui, Y., Pannell, A., Kong, G., Griffith, L., ... & Cavazos-Rehg, P. A. (2023). A review of social media platform policies that address cannabis promotion, marketing and sales. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 18(1), 35.
4. Caulkins, Jonathan P. "Advertising restrictions on cannabis products for nonmedical use: Necessary but not sufficient?" (2018): 19-21.
5. DiGuiseppi, G. T., Dunbar, M. S., Tucker, J. S., Rodriguez, A., Messan Setodji, C., Davis, J. P., & D'Amico, E. J. (2023). Examining indirect effects of advertising exposure on young adults’ cannabis and nicotine vaping. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors.
6. Drake, C. S., Sloan, K., Anderson, M., Clements-Nolle, K. D., & Pearson, J. L. (2023). “I Like the Vibes It Gives”: Adolescent Perspectives on Cannabis Billboards and Print Advertising in Nevada. Journal of Drug Issues, 00220426231159017.
7. Duan, Z., Kasson, E., Ruchelli, S., Rajamahanty, A., Williams, R., Sridharan, P., ... & Cavazos-Rehg, P. A. (2023). Assessment of Online Marketing and Sales Practices Among Recreational Cannabis Retailers in Five US Cities. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research.
8. Hust, S.J., Willoughby, J.F., Li, J., & Couto, L. (2020). Youth’s Proximity to Marijuana Retailers and Advertisements: Factors Associated with Washington State Adolescents’ Intentions to Use Marijuana. Journal of Health Communication, 1-10.
9. Luc, M.H., Tsang, S.W., Thrul, J., Kennedy, R.D., & Moran, M.B. (2020). Content analysis of online product descriptions from cannabis retailers in six US states. International Journal of Drug Policy 75: 102593.
10. Lynch, M. (2021). Themes and tones of cannabis news reports and legalization outcomes. Media, Culture & Society 43, no. 3: 570-581
11. Marinello, S. (2023). Social Media Marketing Practices of Illinois Recreational Cannabis Dispensaries in the First Year of Legal Sales: Product Promotions, Branding, and Price Promotions. Journal of Drug Issues, 00220426231159542.
12. Moreno, M. A., Jenkins, M. C., Trangenstein, P. J., Whitehill, J. M., Stratman, Z. E., & Jernigan, D. H. (2023). Adolescents’ views on preventing youth cannabis marketing exposure: A concept mapping approach. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-22.
13. Romm, K. F., Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., Williams, R., Dopke, C., Cui, Y., LoParco, C., ... & Berg, C. J. (2023). Cannabis retailer communication about cannabis products, health benefits and risks: A mystery shopper study of licensed retailers in 5 US cities. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, jsad-23.
14. Rup, J., Goodman, S., & Hammond, D. (2020). Cannabis advertising, promotion and branding: differences in consumer exposure between ‘legal’and ‘illegal’markets in Canada and the US. Preventive Medicine, 133, 106013.
15. Terala, A., Sangiuolo, K., & Milanaik, R. L. (2023). Access to Marijuana by Minors Via Online Dispensaries. JAMA pediatrics.
16. Trangenstein, P.J., Whitehill, J., Jenkins, M.C., Jernigan, D.H., & Moreno, M.A. (2019). Active cannabis marketing and adolescent past-year cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 204, 107548.
17. Whitehill, J.M., Trangenstein, P.J., Jenkins, M.C., Jernigan, D.H., & Moreno, M.A. (2020). Exposure to cannabis marketing in social and traditional media and past-year use among adolescents in states with legal retail cannabis. Journal of Adolescent Health 66, no. 2: 247-254.
18. Willoughby, J. F., Hust, S. J., Li, J., & Couto, L. (2023). Exposure to pro and anti-cannabis social media messages and teens’ and college students’ intentions to use cannabis. Health communication, 1-12.

Public Consumption

1. Steinberg, J., Unger, J.B., Hallett, C., Williams, E., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., & Cousineau, M.R. (2020). A tobacco control framework for regulating public consumption of cannabis: Multistate analysis and policy implications. American Journal of Public Health, 110(2), 203-208.

Packaging, Labelling, and Warnings

1. Al‐Hamdani, M., Joyce, K.M., Park, T., Cowie, M.E., & Stewart, S.H. (2020). Cannabis packaging: An opportunity for facilitating informed decisions. Journal of Consumer Affairs 55(3).
2. Donnan, J. R., Johnston, K., Najafizada, M., & Bishop, L. D. (2023). Drivers of Purchase Decisions Among Consumers of Dried Flower Cannabis Products–A Discrete Choice Experiment. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-22.     
3. Goodman, S., & Hammond, D. (2021). Noticing of cannabis health warning labels in Canada and the US. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Research, Policy and Practice 41, no. 7-8: 201.
4. Goodman, S., Leos-Toro, C., & Hammond, D. (2019). The impact of plain packaging and health warnings on consumer appeal of cannabis products. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 205, 107633.
5. Goodman, S., Rynard, V.L., Iraniparast, M., & Hammond, D. (2021). Influence of package colour, branding and health warnings on appeal and perceived harm of cannabis products among respondents in Canada and the US. Preventive Medicine 153: 106788.
6. Hammond, D., Goodman, S., Wadsworth, E., Rynard, V., Boudreau, C., & Hall, W. (2020). Evaluating the impacts of cannabis legalization: the International Cannabis Policy Study. International Journal of Drug Policy, 77, 102698.
7. Kees, J., Fitzgerald, P., Dorsey, J.D., & Hill, R.P. (2020). Evidence-based cannabis policy: a framework to guide marketing and public policy research. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 39(1), 76-92.
8. Leos-Toro, C., Fong, G.T., Meyer, S.B., & Hammond, D. (2019). Perceptions of effectiveness and believability of pictorial and text-only health warning labels for cannabis products among Canadian youth. International Journal of Drug Policy, 73, 24-31.
9. Luc, M.H., Tsang, S.W., Thrul, J., Kennedy, R.D., & Moran, M.B. (2020). Content analysis of online product descriptions from cannabis retailers in six US states. International Journal of Drug Policy, 75, 102593.
10. Malouff, J.M., & Schutte-Malouff, B.P. (2020). Government-mandated warnings on cannabis legally sold for recreational use. Journal of Cannabis Research, 2(1), 1-6.
11. Pepper, J.K., Lee, Y.O., Eggers, M.E., Allen, J.A., Thompson, J., & Nonnemaker, J.M. (2020). Perceptions of US and Canadian Cannabis Package Warnings Among US Adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 217, 108275.
12. Schwabe, A. L., Johnson, V., Harrelson, J., & McGlaughlin, M. E. (2023). Uncomfortably high: Testing reveals inflated THC potency on retail Cannabis labels. PLoS one, 18(4), e0282396.
13. Shi, Y., Cao, Y., Shang, C., & Pacula, R.L. (2019). The impacts of potency, warning messages, and price on preferences for Cannabis flower products. International Journal of Drug Policy, 74, 1-10.
14. Winstock, A.R., Lynskey, M.T., Maier, L.J., Ferris, J.A., & Davies, E.L. (2020). Perceptions of cannabis health information labels among people who use cannabis in the US and Canada. International Journal of Drug Policy, 102789.
15. Zhu, B., Guo, H., Cao, Y., An, R., & Shi, Y. (2020). Perceived Importance of Factors in Cannabis Purchase Decisions: A Best-worst Scaling Experiment. International Journal of Drug Policy, 102793.