Overview

This policy topic covers state statutes and regulations governing the cultivation, sale, possession, or use of cannabis for other than medical (hereafter referred to as “recreational”) purposes in states that have legalized cannabis.

In this context, “legalized" means that no civil or criminal penalties are imposed for the recreational use of cannabis by an adult. “Legalized” should not be confused with “decriminalized,” which means that no criminal penalties are imposed for certain activities, although some activities may result in civil penalties. Some States have decriminalized the recreational use of cannabis but have not fully legalized such use.

For purposes of this policy topic, “cannabis” refers to a genus of flowering plant of the Cannabaceae or hemp family, including Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, which together are also commonly known as marijuana. This policy topic covers legal provisions that pertain to the dried tops, leaves, stems, and seeds of the plant, as well as products derived from them, such as concentrates, oils, and edibles.

Cannabis contains chemical compounds called cannabinoids. One important cannabinoid is delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC, which has a psychoactive effect and is the chemical commonly associated with recreational use. Another cannabinoid is cannabidiol, or CBD, which has a sedative and mildly analgesic effect and is the chemical often associated with medicinal use.

Note that APIS does not include information on the legal use of cannabis for medicinal purposes. For policy data regarding medical cannabis, researchers may wish to consult the National Institute on Drug Abuse’s “Prescription Drug Abuse Policy System,” available at: https://pdaps.org/ or the National Conference of State Legislatures’ “State Medical Marijuana Laws” page, available at: https://www.ncsl.org/health/state-medical-cannabis-laws.

Explanatory Notes and Limitations Specifically Applicable to Recreational Use of Cannabis

1. The Recreational Use Legalized column displays a check mark for jurisdictions that have legalized the purchase, possession, or consumption of cannabis for recreational use by an adult resident. For purposes of this topic:

• "Legalized" means no civil or criminal penalties are imposed for at least one of following activities with respect to the recreational use of cannabis by an adult resident: purchase, possession, or consumption
• "Recreational" means for other than medical purposes
• "Adult" means a person 21 years of age or older

This topic does not address prohibitions or penalties that may exist in the jurisdictions that have not legalized recreational cannabis use as defined here.

Note that although a jurisdiction may have legalized recreational cannabis use as defined here, certain limitations may nevertheless be imposed, for example limits on the amount that a person may purchase or possess, or restrictions concerning the locations in which cannabis may be consumed. This topic does not currently address these limitations.

2. Some Recreational Use of Cannabis laws have different effective dates for various provisions. For example, the date establishing a licensing system for the cultivation, testing, manufacturing, processing, distribution, transportation, and retail sale of recreational cannabis may be a year or more earlier than the date when recreational cannabis may lawfully be sold to the public. If significant terms of a State's policy become effective on one date, even though full implementation or enforcement is not effective until a later date, the earlier date is displayed in the comparison tables. In such cases, a Row Note is included to indicate the date when the program is to be fully implemented and enforceable.

Explanatory Notes and Limitations Applicable to Cannabis Use & Possession

The APIS treatment of Underage Prohibitions addresses only prohibitions that specifically reference cannabis or marijuana or THC. This review does not address statutory or regulatory provisions that prohibit underage purchase, possession, consumption, or furnishing only of "intoxicating substances" or "controlled substances" or "listed" or "scheduled" substances generally.

State provisions vary in the language used to prohibit furnishing recreational cannabis to minors. Some refer to any person and include all types of transactions between a provider and an underage receiver (e.g., making it illegal to sell, dispose, deliver, exchange, give, furnish, etc.). Other States' provisions are more limited as to the identified provider and specific prohibited acts. APIS treats all of these transactions as "furnishing” without addressing whether the prohibition applies to commercial as opposed to non-commercial providers. Examination of case law would be required to determine with certainty whether a prohibition applies to commercial as opposed to non-commercial providers, or both, in all States. APIS does not review case law.

For Public Consumption, users should note that “local option” may apply to cannabis consumption practices in certain jurisdictions. In other words, even in jurisdictions which APIS has coded as prohibiting public consumption of recreational cannabis under State law, it is possible that local ordinances may allow consumption outside a private residence in certain settings and in specific sub-state jurisdictions, for example in a private club or social club setting, or pursuant to a local consumption area license. Conversely, it is possible that local ordinances may prohibit consumption establishments otherwise allowed under state law. (For more information on this subject, see the Local Authority variable in Recreational Use of Cannabis.) APIS does not document policies established by local governments. In addition, the APIS treatment of Public Consumption does not address the impact of clean indoor air act or smoke-free air act laws as they may relate to the consumption of cannabis.

Explanatory Notes and Limitations Applicable to All APIS Policy Topics

1. State law may permit local jurisdictions to impose requirements in addition to those mandated by State law. Alternatively, State law may prohibit local legislation on this topic, thereby preempting local powers. For more information on the preemption doctrine, see the About Alcohol Policy page. APIS does not document policies established by local governments.

2. In addition to statutes and regulations, judicial decisions (case law) also may affect alcohol-related policies. APIS does not review case law except to determine whether judicial decisions have invalidated statutes or regulations that would otherwise affect the data presented in the comparison tables.

3. APIS reviews published administrative regulations. However, administrative decisions or directives that are not included in a State's published regulatory codes may have an impact on implementation. This possibility has not been addressed by the APIS research.

4. Statutes and regulations cited in tables on this policy topic may have been amended or repealed after the specific date or time period specified by the site user's search criteria.

5. The operation or enforcement of statutes or regulations affecting the policies addressed on APIS may have been suspended or modified by executive or administrative orders issued in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.  With the exception of the COVID-19 Digest and Dataset, APIS research does not address these orders or the effects they may have on the policies covered by APIS.

6. Policy changes in APIS are presented as of the date these changes take effect as law. Users should be aware that in some situations there may be a delay between the effective date of a law and the time a corresponding policy change occurs in practice. Because APIS research is based entirely on primary legal source materials (codified statutes and regulations and, on rare occasions, published court opinions), APIS is unable to accurately determine when policy changes may appear in practice.

7. If a conflict exists between a statute and a regulation addressing the same legal issue, APIS coding relies on the statute.

8. A comprehensive understanding of the data presented in the comparison tables for this policy topic requires examination of the applicable Row Notes and Jurisdiction Notes, which can be accessed from the body of the table via links in the Jurisdiction column.

APIS reviews federal law pertaining to the use of cannabis, including its classification as a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Discussion of this law and its implications, as well as the interplay of federal law and state law on cannabis, is available at this link.

FEDERAL CITATIONS AND RELEVANT TEXT EXCERPTS

21 U.S.C. § 812

§ 812. Schedules of controlled substances

(a) Establishment

There are established five schedules of controlled substances, to be known as schedules I, II, III, IV, and V. Such schedules shall initially consist of the substances listed in this section. * * *

21 U.S.C. § 841

§ 841. Prohibited acts A

(a) Unlawful acts

Except as authorized by this subchapter, it shall be unlawful for any person knowingly or intentionally--

(1) to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, a controlled substance; or

(2) to create, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to distribute or dispense, a counterfeit substance.

21 U.S.C. § 844

§ 844. Penalties for simple possession

(a) Unlawful acts; penalties

It shall be unlawful for any person knowingly or intentionally to possess a controlled substance unless such substance was obtained directly, or pursuant to a valid prescription or order, from a practitioner, while acting in the course of his professional practice, or except as otherwise authorized by this subchapter or subchapter II of this chapter. * * *

* * *

21 U.S.C. § 846

§ 846. Attempt and conspiracy

Any person who attempts or conspires to commit any offense defined in this subchapter shall be subject to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense, the commission of which was the object of the attempt or conspiracy.

Source for all citations on this page: www.govinfo.gov/, a service of the U.S. Government Publishing Office (GPO). Excerpts from the United States Code are current as of 2024. Excerpts from the Code of Federal Regulations are current as of 2025. Excerpts from Public Laws of Congress are current as of the year of enactment. The GPO’s Public Domain & Copyright Notice is available at https://www.govinfo.gov/about/policies#copyright.

​​​​​Legalization

1. Carlini, B. H., Kellum, L. B., Garrett, S. B., & Nims, L. N. (2024). Threaten, Distract, and Discredit: Cannabis Industry Rhetoric to Defeat Regulation of High-THC Cannabis Products in Washington State. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 85(3), 322-329.
2. Schauer, G. L., Johnson, J. K., Rak, D. J., Dodson, L., Steinfeld, N., Sheehy, T. J., ... & Collins, S. P. (2023). A research agenda to inform cannabis regulation: how science can shape policy. Clinical therapeutics, 45(6), 506-514.

Cannabis Use & Possession

1. Albers, L., Rogers, C. J., Steinberg, J., Vos, R. O., Soto, D., Lee, R., ... & Unger, J. B. (2024). Proximity to cannabis retailers and recent cannabis use among a diverse sample of California adolescents. Substance Use & Misuse, 59(5), 643-650.
2. Baweja, R., Mills-Huffnagle, S., Jernigan, A., Chongtham, N., Waschbusch, D., & Waxmonsky, J. G. (2024). Synthetic Marijuana: Assessment of Usage, Motivation and Associated Risks in Adolescent Substance Users. Substance Use: Research and Treatment, 18, 29768357241254258.
3. Chan, O., Daudi, A., Ji, D., Wang, M., Steen, J. P., Parnian, P., ... & Wang, L. Cannabis Use During Adolescence and Young Adulthood and Academic Achievement: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA pediatrics.
4. Chentsova, V. O., Bravo, A. J., Hetelekides, E., Gutierrez, D., Prince, M. A., & Stimulant Norms and Prevalence (SNAP) Study Team. (2024). Exploring perceptions of self-stigma of substance use and current alcohol and marijuana use patterns among college students. Plos one, 19(4), e0301535.
5. Coelho, S. G., Hendershot, C. S., Fox, N., & Wardell, J. D. (2024). How much THC is in that joint? A daily diary study of young adults’ knowledge of the cannabinoid content of cannabis products. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, jsad-23.
6. Coley, R. L., Carey, N., Kruzik, C., Hawkins, S. S., & Baum, C. F. (2024). Recreational cannabis legalization, retail sales, and adolescent substance use through 2021. JAMA pediatrics, 178(6), 622-625.
7. Esie, P. (2024). Cannabis Use Among Students in Grades 8, 10, and 12, by Sex—King County, Washington, 2008–2021. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 73.
8. Evoy, R., & Victoroff, T. (2024). Prevalence of Cannabis Use Among US Workers in 15 States, 2016–2020. American Journal of Public Health, 114(S8), S645-S653.
9. Farokhnia, M., Harris, J. C., Speed, S. N., Leggio, L., & Johnson, R. M. (2024). Lifetime use of alcohol and cannabis among US adolescents across age: Exploring differential patterns by sex and race/ethnicity using the 2019 NSDUH data. Drug and alcohol dependence reports, 10, 100214.
10. Graupensperger, S., Calhoun, B. H., Fairlie, A. M., Walukevich-Dienst, K., Patrick, M. E., & Lee, C. M. (2024). Simultaneous use of alcohol and cannabis and[ST1]  attenuated age-related declines in alcohol and cannabis use disorder symptoms across young adulthood. Drug and alcohol dependence reports, 12, 100252.
11. Gonçalves, P. D., Bruzelius, E., Levy, N. S., Segura, L. E., Livne, O., Gutkind, S., ... & Martins, S. S. (2023). Recreational cannabis legislation and binge drinking in US adolescents and adults. International Journal of Drug Policy, 118, 104085.
12. Henry, K. L., Stanley, L. R., & Swaim, R. C. (2024). Risk and promotive factors related to cannabis use among American Indian adolescents. Prevention science, 1-15.
13. Hultgren, B. A., Calhoun, B. H., Fleming, C. B., Rhew, I. C., Larimer, M. E., Kilmer[ST2] , J. R., & Guttmannova, K. (2024). Trends in Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol and Cannabis Among Young Adults in Washington State From Before to During the COVID-19 Pandemic. American Journal of Public Health, 114(S8), S698-S701.
14. Kerr, D. C., Tiberio, S. S., Bailey, J. A., Epstein, M., Henry, K. L., & Capaldi, D. M. (2024). Youth exposure to recreational cannabis legalization: moderation of effects by sex and parental cannabis use during adolescence. Substance Use & Misuse, 59(6), 947-952.
15. Kourgiantakis, T., Vicknarajah, R., Logan, J., Edwards, T., Lee, E., Craig, S., ... & Marshall, S. (2024). Understanding youth and young adult cannabis use in Canada post-legalization: a scoping review on a public health issue. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 19(1), 30.
16. LoParco, C. R., Webb, N., Subbaraman, M. S., Lin, H. C., Trangenstein, P. J., Yockey, R. A., & Rossheim, M. E. (2023). Characteristics of drinking episodes associated with simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use among underage drinkers in the United States. Addictive Behaviors, 136, 107501.
17. Marinello, S. (2024). The Impact of Recreational Cannabis Markets on Cannabis Use Among Adolescents and Adults: A Synthetic Control Analysis. Cannabis.
18. Mattingly, D. T., Richardson, M. K., & Hart, J. L. (2024). Prevalence of and trends in current cannabis use among US youth and adults, 2013–2022. Drug and alcohol dependence reports, 12, 100253.
19. Nguyen, H. V., Mital, S., & Bornstein, S. (2023). Short-term effects of recreational cannabis legalization on youth cannabis initiation. Journal of Adolescent Health, 72(1), 111-117.
20. O’Grady, M. A., Iverson, M. G., Suleiman, A. O., & Rhee, T. G. (2024). Is legalization of recreational cannabis associated with levels of use and cannabis use disorder among youth in the United States? A rapid systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(3), 701-723.
21. Park, M., Mallinson, D. J., Altaf, S., & Richardson Jr, L. E. (2024). Cannabis policy bundles and traffic fatalities in the American States over time. Addiction.
22. Pawar, A. K., Firmin, E. S., Wilens, T. E., & Hammond, C. J. (2024). Systematic review and meta-analysis: medical and recreational cannabis laws and cannabis use among youth in the United States. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.
23. Pearson, J. L., Powers, M. G., Drake, C., Yang, Y., FitzGerald, C. A., Green, D., ... & Clements-Nolle, K. (2024). Increasing lifetime and past 30-day marijuana use among middle school students regardless of recreational marijuana sales. Addictive Behaviors, 153, 107999.
24. Pechmann, C. C., Calder, D., Timberlake, D., Rhee, J., Padon, A., & Silver, L. (2024). Young adult retail purchases of cannabis, product category preferences and sales trends in California 2018–21: Differences compared with older adults. Addiction, 119(10), 1774-1783.
25. Pessar, S. C., Smart, R., Naimi, T., Lira, M., Blanchette, J., Boustead, A., & Pacula, R. L. (2024). The association between state cannabis policies and cannabis use among adults and youth, United States, 2002–2019. Addiction.
26. Purba, A. K., Thomson, R. M., Henery, P. M., Pearce, A., Henderson, M., & Katikireddi, S. V. (2023). Social media use and health risk behaviours in young people: systematic review and meta-analysis. bmj, 383.
27. Reed, S. E., Kerr, D. C., & Snyder, F. J. (2024). Latent profile analysis of college students’ alcohol and cannabis co-use patterns after recreational cannabis legalization. Addictive behaviors, 154, 108021.
28. Romm, K. F., Dearfield, C. T., & Berg, C. J. (2024). Longitudinal patterns of alcohol and cannabis use among US young adults: correlates and implications for problematic health outcomes. Addictive behaviors, 158, 108123[ST3] .
29. Rosenbaum, J. E. (2024). Substance Use and College Completion Among Two-Year and Four-Year College Students From a Nationally Representative Longitudinal Study. Cureus, 16(5).
30. Schulz, J. A., Gimm, G., West, J. C., Kock, L., & Villanti, A. C. (2024). Patterns of alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use among US adolescents and young adults by disability status: 2015–2019. Journal of Adolescent Health, 74(4), 764-773.
31. Volkow, N. D., Compton, W. M., Blanco, C., Einstein, E. B., & Han, B. (2024). Associations of cannabis use, use frequency, and cannabis use disorder with violent behavior among young adults in the United States. International Journal of Drug Policy, 128, 104431.
32. Vuolo, L., Oster, R., & Richter, L. (2024). Protecting Youth In The Context Of Marijuana Legalization: Creating A Legal And Regulatory Framework. Health Affairs Forefront.
33. Wardell, J. D., Coelho, S. G., Farrelly, K. N., Fox, N., Cunningham, J. A., O'Connor, R. M., & Hendershot, C. S. (2024). Interactive effects of alcohol and cannabis quantities in the prediction of same‐day negative consequences among young adults. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 48(5), 967-979.
34. Yang, S., Cotter, L. M., Lu, L., Kriss, L. A., Minich, M., Liu, J., ... & Cascio, C. N. (2024). Countering online marketing and user endorsements with enhanced cannabis warning labels: An online experiment among at-risk youth and young adults. Preventive Medicine, 180, 107877.
35. Young-Wolff, K. C., Does, M. B., Mian, M. N., Sterling, S. A., Satre, D. D., Campbell, C. I., ... & Altschuler, A. (2024). Clinician perspectives on adolescent cannabis-related beliefs and behaviors following recreational cannabis legalization. Addictive behaviors, 156, 108046.
36. Young-Wolff, K. C., Asera, A., Padon, A. A., Slama, N. E., Alexeeff, S. E., Pacula, R. L., ... & Silver, L. D. (2024). Association of Local Cannabis Policy and Retail Availability With Cannabis Use and Problematic Cannabis Use Among Adolescents in Northern California. American Journal of Public Health, 114(S8), S654-S663.

• Cannabis Retail Access
• Furnishing Alcohol to Minors
• Possession/Consumption/Internal Possession of Alcohol
• Underage Purchase of Alcohol

Cannabis Policy Taxonomy

How to Measure Law for Quantitative Research – A Resource Guide 

Sources of Data to Measure the Outcomes of Policy Change

Report to Congress on the Prevention and Reduction of Underage Drinking 

Peer-Reviewed Publications Using APIS Data 

Federal Cannabis Law